Domestic Violence toward Asian Women

municipal madness toward Asiatic WomenHypothesis DissertationBased on look for and statistics, it is be intimate that national help abandon toward Asiatic women is pervasive. Twelve percentage of Asian and Pacific Islander women reported experiencing physical assault by an intimate partner in crime at least once during their spirittime (Jaden Tonnes, 2000). Unfortunately, documented reports of demoralize approximately likely under-represent the number of ill-treat women softenable to the secretive and dupeizing nature of municipal effect.Asian women whitethorn arrive from various cultural backgrounds, including Philippines, India, China, Korea, Thailand, and Japan to ph angiotensin converting enzyme few. Domestic forcefulness is a devastating social ill that occurs much too frequently, especial(a)ly more so in closes that emphasize the importance of upholding the family name.This estimatetion whitethorn often lede to enmeshed families who emphasize positive family attributes while minimizing or dismantle denying interdict aspects of the family environment. Further, stigmatizing issues much(prenominal) as municipal violence argon about likely minimized or overlooked by an a nonher(prenominal)(prenominal) family members. In result, it may in like manner be authorized that Asian women be discouraged from relying on friends discloseside of the family for give and assistance.Views of women in Asian countries may as well contribute to the rate of domestic violence in Asian communities. Women confirm historic entirelyy been looked upon as less valuable, able and intelligent in comparison to me. This view of women, although somewhat altered indoors most new years, cover ups to be a global obstructer in the advancement of women. This view is oddly held strong in Asian communities, where it continues to be more widely accepted. Additionally, rig on the views of the Asian population, womens propose programs may b e scarce ornon outliveent. In argonas where programs do exist, it may be extremely disloyal to the family to report instances of aversion or any early(a) negative occurrence at bottom the family home.Based on what is already known about dupes of stranger violence, the effects of domestic violence appear to be dually devastating. An environment that is starting signal assumed to be true(p) and comfortable is instead re laid by unitary that is tainted, ever threatening and without solace. Possibly the besides fend system the dupe may provoke assumed to have is now stripped from her and replaced with fear and loneliness.The effects of this type of isolation usually jazz to decreased self-esteem and increased feelings of chagrin and guilt which may cause a ripple effect in many other aras of the victims manner story. Due to debauch, she may feel she open fire non progress to her educational and/or c beer goals. She may be isolated from family and friends due to the per petrators fear that they may find out she is organism twistd. The victim may feel tremendous shame and guilt for staying in an abusive family relationship and thus, subjecting her children to such a volatilizable environment. Lastly, and most critically, the misapply mountain lead to the victims severe harm and many times even death.Literature ReviewIn target of battle to best understand the nature of domestic violence, it is vital to mention that the population being addressed is non homogenous one. Rather, when describing twist aroundd women, this description includes women who argon physically and/or mentally disabled it includes women who give the gate and cannot read and it includes women who do and do not speak the language of the country they are living in.It also includes women who pay off from any gamut of pecuniaryly impoverished to rattling affluent backgrounds and women who may be homemakers caring for young children to extremely successful career women. Additionally, although the focus of this piece of explore relates to Asian women, it is valuable to note that women of all ethnicities are at risk of becoming victims of domestic violence (Yoshioka, 2001).Domestic violence advocates have investigated maltreaters patterns so that victims and advocates can better comprehend abusers pathological behaviors. The circle of violence is a portrayal of the cyclical behaviors of abusers. It is expound as three main phases. The first phase describes how the abuser becomes increasingly angry, which may include antagonizing the victim, business her names and demeaning her.Avery large part of abuse is in the form of verbal and emotional attack. The abuser may tell the victim that she deserves the abuse and even acres that she likes the abuse. He may tell her that no one else would want her. In the second phase, the abuser hurts his victim by inflicting physical and/or intimate acts toward her. Soon after violent episodes, the abuser will a pologize for hurting his partner and may make promises he does not intend to keep, such as neer hurting her again or promising to seek help. The abuser may also attempt to fall over the situation by lavishing his partner with gifts. Unfortunately, the abuse does not stop on that point and instead, he will continue to repeat the cycle (Domestic Violence cognizance Project, 2005).Knowing that the abusers behaviours are part of a maladaptive cycle is useful in informing victims of this cycle. In this way, they do not get to internalize the abuse and do not learn to conceptualise that the abusers verbal, physical and sexual abuse is granted. Instead, grounds the abusers dysfunctional method of relating allows victims to attribute the abuse to the abuser instead of their own shortcomings. With this knowledge, victims are able to heal from the abuse and regain a feeling of self-worth (Yoshiaka, 2001).It is widely believed that Asian women of many regions are highly fictile to li ves of subjugation and servitude to their partners. This belief is attributed to a variety of cultural factors. It is hypothesized that women remain in abusive relationships due to the stigma that is placed on them if they commit their partner. In order to preserve family dignity, respect and honour, women many times do not speak out against abusive situations. In fact, due to the powerful conventional workouts enforced within Asian communities, extended family members who do have knowledge of the abuse encourage women to tolerate the abuse.In a consider by How (1990), she sought to examine the regard of domestic violence within the Asian population, specifically within Southeast Asians including Laotians, Khmer, Vietnamese, and Chinese. The researcher found that the impact of traditional Asian values such as close family ties, harmony and order do not necessarily send the message that abuse is unacceptable. Instead, women are expect to play a submissive use of goods and br eak that includes values of fatalism, perseverance and self-restraint. Victims feel that if these qualities are maintained, they are showing respect to their families and bringing them great(p) honour. Ultimately, victims feel they are honourable women who are fulfilling their bridals duties (How, 1990). at bottom the Asian-Indian population, the definition of relationship is nearly synonymous with marriage due to the husbandrys belief in logical marriage. Arranged marriage is the practice in which parents select their childrens future economise or wife. Potential mates are then allowed to go forth their gossip about his or her potential husband or wife. A lasting marriage is a symbolism of honour and respect, which in turn reflects upon the entire family. This is specially important for other siblings within the family, whose chances of being arranged depend greatly on their female siblings compliance to their husbands. Additionally, for couples who have female children, w omen may endure the abuse in order to cherish their daughters name, or reputation.Otherwise, if the family secret is exposed or the woman leaves the relationship, a victims daughter may never have a chance of acquire married because her family name is now tainted. nearly Indian brides carry dowry related abuse. A dowry is a material exchange given to the arranges family by the brides family in exchange for the neatens family inviting the bride into their family. Sometimes, the schools family will film more dowry money or other as rates such as livestock, cars or jewelry. If the demands are not fulfilled, the bride may be severely mistreated physically, verbally and sexually by her new groom and in-laws (BBC Network, 2006).The article Domestic Violence and Asian Immigrant Women by M. Yoshioka(2001), explores the Asian communitys attitudes toward domestic violence. The researcher also desires to understand psychosocial factors regarding domestic violence within this population. Specifically, the study was give riseed to look at three areas that involved abuser approval of abuse situation-specific approval of violence endorsement of male privilege and perceived alternatives to abuse.The setting of the study takes place in New York, which compels the researcher to pose questions regarding Asian families views and struggles with domestic violence in the context of an immigrant country. Yoshiaka also implemented an mind tool that was specifically created to gather instruction about attitudes regarding abuse titled, the Revised Attitudes toward Wife Abuse Scale (RAWA),which was true by Yoshiaka and Dania (1999). In order to develop this assessment tool, 650 surveys of Chinese, Kampuchean, Korean, Vietnamese, and South Asian adults were ga in that locationd.Immigrant families contend with many obstacles. Abusive environments further complicate the hurdles that exist for women who are taken out of their familiar motherland elements. Based on these dynamics , victims of abuse in this type of environment are further isolated due to attainable separation from family of origin, language barrier, and escape of knowledge about the host countrys view of abuse and provision of controlive swear outs.Researchers found that it is a composite plant interweaving of cultural, environmental, and interpersonal factors that contribute to the possibility for domestic violence within the immigrant population. They identify values such as privacy, honour, self-restraint, harmony, and order (Hosted, 1984 Hu Chen, 1999 Kerkrade, Tang, Westwood, 1991 McLaughlin Braun, 1998) as factors that may minimize the severity of domestic violence within the culture (Ho,1990).Additionally, immigrants support system is usually left behind in their homeland, which strips them of supportive family and friends who could otherwise support and advice victims. Further, they may not be knowledgeable of the support answers available in their host country. Another facto r that contributes to isolation is a possible language barrier (Das Dasgupota Warrier, 1996). want of command of the host countrys language could be absolutely devastating and fearful for a victim who is already isolated from a support system and familiar environment.Results from the study showed that gender, ethni urban center and regard to parental abuse were factors contributing to greater acceptance of wife abuse. Males were more likely to endorse abuse, particularly Cambodian men when compared with Chinese men. Additionally, children who witnessed their mothers being abused were more likely to view abuse as acceptable. Researchers made a final and significant point, stating that although Asian immigrants are categorized within one crime syndicate, there are apparent differences in Asians views of spousal abuse.MethodologyIn describing domestic violence toward Asian women and its effects, it was first required to describe what a victim is like. Unfortunately, the frequent public assumes that a battered woman is most likely quite a vulnerable in that she is uneducated, passive and weak. Some even believe that a victim enjoys the abuse. Many people wonder why an abused woman does not simply leave her relationship. The reality is that anyone could be a victim, regardless of age, race, disability status, financial status, and education. This is why it was important to describe the profile of a victim at the beginning to emphasize that there is no typical profile. Anyone could become victim to abuse by simply trusting that her partner will care for her with respect.Victims could also be boys and men, however, for the purpose of this research, this population was not addressed to any capacity. Additionally, cultural norms of other ethnicities were not explored duet the focus of this research being solely on Asian women. However, some of the studies included in this research included comparative selective learning between Asian women and women of other n ationalities.The cycle of violence was also explained. It is a critical factor in intellectual abusers behaviours for the purpose of providing services to abusers and especially to provide victims with an understanding of what they are experiencing and why. Many sufferers of domestic violence are told what is deficient in them. Over time, they begin to believe these untruths.In investigating the intricacies of domestic violence and how it affects the Asian population specifically, it was important to provide examples of various cultures norms regarding the views and manipulation of women. Although all Asian countries cultural norms and sub-cultural idiosyncrasies were not described within the context of this research, some cultures usance were explored. Although it is important to obtain an exhaustive understanding about various Asian cultures it is vital to acknowledge that several idiosyncrasies exist within distributively country, every city and even every subculture. Thus, i t was important to explore research that explained this factor of culture.Further, its ambitious to generalize that one particular culture or sub-culture has a set template of norms, therefore, descriptions of cultural norms were described with care and consideration. It should be noted that when speaking of any given culture, it is not to be assumed that the description exclusively applies to each and every person within particular culture. Therefore, application of cultural norms should be understood with the idea that no one culture is completely homogenous. All in all, it is important to have a balanced understanding of cultural norms that do not over-generalize a culture and notwithstanding do take into consideration that there is a majority view about most issues.General data on domestic violence was quite assentingible. Many forms of information exist that assists in understanding the nature of abuse and its effects. There is also a wealth of information about the type o f support available to victims of abuse and perpetrators. The Internet Isa racy source for finding local agencies and support groups relating to domestic violence. Information was also discovered through various modes of literary productions books, journal articles and magazines. Visual media can also be accessed via Internet, videotape, DVD and television programming that advocates for victims rights and disseminates other information for advocates, victims and perpetrators.Due to the directed nature of this piece, it was demand to not only(prenominal) search for general information about domestic violence, but instead, there was a choose for materials about domestic violence within the Asian population. With this need came the projection of finding out as much as possible about the many categories of Asians that exist and to also find the most cadence of information about each category and sub-category.This was found to be a gruelling task, because contrary to belief, ther e are several classifications within the category known as Asian. Compounding this point was the lack of abundant information regarding domestic violence in various Asian cultural contexts. Additionally, little information was found about supportive services within many Asian communities, most probably due to the cultural views regarding keeping personal information within the family and also duet the accepting views toward abuse.Fortunately, much of the information found did include the many facets of violence within the Asian population, such as provision of statistical data of how many women of various cultures reported spousal abuse perpetrators views about abuse perpetuation of these views duet cultural beliefs about abuse gigantic-term effects on abused women and children availability of treatment treatment modalities and laws that now protect women against violence.DiscussionThe devastating effects of domestic violence have been brought into the forefront of popular culture only within the past 20 years ago. Since then, and probably long before on a smaller scale, advocates have been working vigorously to service domestic violence victims and expose the dreaded nature of its effects.This has included conducting research with women, children and perpetrators attempting various forms of therapeutic modalities to address the after-effects provision of abuser services and exposure of domestic violence through written and optical media. Through these efforts, victim advocates have provided support to thousands of women who otherwise would either continue to live a life of isolate despair or alternatively, lose their lives to domestic violence.Unfortunately, the amount of information and support services that are available vary widely establish on victims geographical location, largely due to the take of perimeter toward domestic violence. Naturally, the more a society believes an act is a crime, the more intensive the work toward ratiocination it. How ever, other factors exist that inhibit further research toward ending violence against Asian women. Many Asian countries are horribly impoverished and do not have the means to either conduct necessary research nor provide protection and services to women and their children. Victim advocates contend with many hurdles under these types of conditions.Funding is not available to do the necessary work involved. In supporting women who are or have suffered domestic violence, the need for many levels of support is needed. Women who are before long in an abusive relationship are most likely stripped of many basic needs and resources. For instance, abused women may not have access to finances, a car or other transportation, sustenance supply, proper clothing and medical care. In order for domestic violence advocates to provide for these needs, they must have the proper financial backing. With financial resources, food pantries could be created, medical care could be made available, shelter s could be built and transportation could be provided to important locations such as homes of supportive family, friends, and religious institutions.For women who find to leave abusive relationships, services such as transitional living could be made available. Providing a safe living environment would be predominant for Asian women, particularly due to the lack of support received by family members, immediate family included. If a woman were to leave her husband to seek out the support of immediate family, the victim would be turned away in most cases and encouraged to return to the abusers home. This suggestion is based on the familys unwillingness to dishonour the family name by having daughter who left her husband. Further, they do not want to offend the grooms family by displaying their disapproval toward the abuse. Women who check to leave their partner also require additional support services such as referrals for educational and vocational services. If they have children, they may need child care services so that the women can seek employment to support themselves and their children.Education related to cultural views about abuse is also necessary. Its important to jest at societal norms that accept abuse. For an Asian woman, leaving her spouse is directly contradictory to everything she learned about achievement of life goals since she was a child. From childhood, many Asian parents all the way define their daughters role in society as children, as adolescents, and ultimately, as adults. The ultimate goal is to marry into a distinguished, successful family that is willing to accept a deserving woman into their lives. Being trained in this way for essentially all of their lives, it is often complicated task for an abused woman to understand why she is worthy of making her own choices and living her life in the way she chooses, which includes being free of any level of abuse.As stated earlier in the Method section, it was mentioned that there was n ot ample research in the area of domestic violence in the Asian community. This is not to say that there is not enough to support those who would like to know more about domestic violence. However, there seems to be a great need for extensive research and investigating into the many cultures within the Asian population and the effects of domestic violence in these communities. By further understanding the nature of abuse in this context, service providers are able to more effectively provide the type of services needed by Asian women. finaleDomestic violence research in the Asian population is still in its infancy. Considering that fact that domestic violence has not been intended to for so long provides a time frame that suggests that although there is not an abundance of work toward attending to Asian victims, there have been some concrete efforts in its progression.Delving into the intricacies of domestic violence within this population is no easy task, and will not be going for ward. There are many hindrances to gaining swift and accurate information about Asian womens suffering, although it is urgently needed. One of the biggest hurdles that have been discussed within this research is Asians cultural views regarding secrecy of family troubles. A woman is not only betraying her husband if she discloses abuse, but she is also shaming twain her in-laws and her family of origin by disturbing the family structure and name. Although some parents would provide their support in a situation such as this, most would not. Therefore, the victim knows she has nowhere to go.Not only is family name at stake. Compounding this pressure is the fact that women are not highly regarded within most Asian cultures. Therefore, no one considers her desires and needs. Instead, she must does she is commanded, which usually involves fulfilling caretaking responsibilities for other members of the family. A woman in Asian society is considered similarly as a child. She does not have many skills that would be useful other than household responsibilities, she must be watched, and she is not knowledgeable about many subjects. Based on this outlook, how is it possible to fathom that she may need to be attended to properly? For any social change to occur towards the treatment of Asian women, it is a need that views of women themselves also change.In speaking of women who suffer from spousal abuse, it is vital to discuss the effects of abuse of others in the home that are also experiencing the abuse. Children are particularly susceptible to inaccurate methods of dealing with life circumstances due to inexperience. Therefore, those who are also experiencing abuse or even witnessing it learn that violence is the answer to lifes obstacles. Further, children of abused women do not have high regard for their mothers due to their observation that she is being mistreated by their father. Thus, they too learn to become abusive toward their mothers, and in turn continue to r epeat the cycle of abuse. In essence, they inherit this devastating method of dealing with life throughout childhood and on into adulthood. Children who were once victims and/or witnesses of domestic abuse now become the perpetrators, simply due tithe lack of knowledge that alternatives exist.Intervention is absolutely necessary to protect abused women. However, for long-term gain, intervention is also essential. Without an outlook toward the future, there will be no end to violence, but instead only bandaging of distract and suffering that has already occurred. There is no guarantee that prevention work will decrease the prevalence of domestic violence in Asian families, particularly due to strong views opposing the idea of regarding women equally. However, there is great possibility that given time, views will change and progress will be made.It is a difficult yet courageous and commendable proceeding to attempt to eradicate abuse from the lives of Asian women. However, as seen within this research, the reality currently remains that leaving relationship may not appear to be the most appealing option for women who have received life-long training to dedicate their lives to servitude to their spouses. Additionally, they also know that there are few positive alternatives to leaving their spouse. They may be destitute with no support from their families of origin. They have no source of financial or emotional support.They may risk ever seeing their children again. And most regrettably, they are endangering their lives by attempting to leave. Thousands of cases are reported in the United States and United Kingdom stating that women have lost their lives to spousal abuse. In these countries, most people apply that thesis a horrible tragedy and work toward changing the occurrence of such heinous crimes. Alternatively, Asian communities have very high tolerance and then acceptance of domestic violence to the extent that very few people openly show their disgust against it. In fact, it is encouraged and applauded. It is seen as being a well-deserved and appropriate punishment. Women can well expect being burned to death on account of their parents inability to pay off the grooms family. Adwoman can be openly beaten without neither family nor strangers attempting to put an end to it. How then can it be stopped? goal an evil such as this without a sense of social responsibility is extremely difficult. Further, work with abusers is nearly impossible, knowing that this method of relating to partners has been cultivated and accepted in the minds of Asian men. Moreover, because the Asian community believes in resolving familial issues amongst each other, many abusers would not be receptive to counselling. Even in the case that an abuser agreed to seek counselling, other family members may not be supportive of this type of resolution, instead viewing it as disloyalty and abandonment of the family.Due to the abundance of obstacles to ending violen ce in the Asian community, it becomes acquire that abuse toward women within the Asian population will surely be maintained for now. However, it is also hopeful to state that progress will be made, based on the progress that has already been achieved. Although progress is very slow and despite the many fears that they are contending with, it is encouraging to know that women have begun speaking out against abuse.ReferencesBBC Asian Network (2005). Asian women and domestic violence. www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/features/hh/awadv. .Das Dasgupota Warrier. (1996). Domestic Violence in the South Asian Immigrant Community. Journal of brotherly Distress and the Homeless,93. 173-185.Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California-San Francisco, USA.Domestic Violence Awareness Project of the National Resource Centre on Domestic Violence (2005). Domestic Violence Awareness Action for Social Change. papa Coalition Against Domestic Violence.How, C. K. (1990). An analysis of domestic violence in Asian American communities A multicultural border on to counselling. Women Therapy, 9(1-2), 129-150.Hosted, G. (1984). Cultures consequences International differences in work related values, Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications, Inc.Kahlo, L. R. (1983). Social values and social change Adaptation to life in America. New York Pager.Kerkrade, Tang, Westwood. (1991).McLaughlin, L.A. Braun, K.L. (1998). Asian and Pacific Islander Cultural Values Considerations for Health Care Decision Making, 23.Health and Social train.Millender, A. Rethinking Domestic Violence The Social Work and Probation Response London Rutledge. 1996.Rodriguez, M Quahog, S and Bauer, H.M. (1996). Breaking the silence Battered womens perspectives on medical care, 5, 3.Yoshioka, M.R. Domestic Violence and Asian Immigrant Women. http//www.columbia.edu/cu/csswp/research/desriptions/Yosh.htm. .Yoshioka, M.R., Shibusawa, T. (2004). Psychosocial Measures for Asian Pacific Americans. In A. Robert s K Yeager (Eds.),Evidence-based practice manual (pp. 488-495). New York, NY Oxford University Press.Yoshioka, M.R., Dania, J., Ulla, K. (2001). Attitudes toward marital violence An examination of four Asian communities. Violence against women, 7(8), 900-926.Jaden, P., Tonnes, N. (2000). Extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence Research Report. Washington, Declinational Institute of nicety and the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention.Domestic Violence toward Asian WomenDomestic Violence toward Asian WomenHypothesis DissertationBased on research and statistics, it is known that domestic violence toward Asian women is pervasive. Twelve percent of Asian and Pacific Islander women reported experiencing physical assault by an intimate partner at least once during their lifetime (Jaden Tonnes, 2000). Unfortunately, documented reports of abuse most likely under-represent the number of abused women due to the secretive and victimizing nature of domestic violen ce.Asian women may come from various cultural backgrounds, including Philippines, India, China, Korea, Thailand, and Japan to name few. Domestic violence is a devastating social ill that occurs much too frequently, particularly more so in cultures that emphasize the importance of upholding the family name.This ideation may often lead to enmeshed families who emphasize positive family attributes while minimizing or even denying negative aspects of the family environment. Further, stigmatizing issues such as domestic violence are most likely minimized or overlooked by other family members. In result, it may also be true that Asian women are discouraged from relying on friends outside of the family for support and assistance.Views of women in Asian countries may also contribute to the rate of domestic violence in Asian communities. Women have historically been looked upon as less valuable, able and intelligent in comparison to me. This view of women, although somewhat altered within mo st recent years, continues to be a global obstacle in the advancement of women. This view is particularly held strong in Asian communities, where it continues to be more widely accepted. Additionally, based on the views of the Asian population, womens advocate programs may be scarce ornonexistent. In areas where programs do exist, it may be extremely disloyal to the family to report instances of abuse or any other negative occurrence within the family home.Based on what is already known about victims of stranger violence, the effects of domestic violence appear to be dually devastating. An environment that is first assumed to be safe and comfortable is instead replaced by one that is tainted, ever threatening and without solace. Possibly the only support system the victim may have assumed to have is now stripped from her and replaced with fear and loneliness.The effects of this type of isolation usually lead to decreased self-esteem and increased feelings of shame and guilt which ma y cause a ripple effect in many other areas of the victims life. Due to abuse, she may feel she cannot achieve her educational and/or career goals. She may be isolated from family and friends due to the perpetrators fear that they may find out she is being abused. The victim may feel tremendous shame and guilt for staying in an abusive relationship and thus, subjecting her children to such a volatile environment. Lastly, and most critically, the abuse can lead to the victims severe harm and many times even death.Literature ReviewIn order to best understand the nature of domestic violence, it is vital to mention that the population being addressed is not homogenous one. Rather, when describing abused women, this description includes women who are physically and/or mentally disabled it includes women who can and cannot read and it includes women who do and do not speak the language of the country they are living in.It also includes women who come from any gamut of financially impoveri shed to very affluent backgrounds and women who may be homemakers caring for young children to extremely successful career women. Additionally, although the focus of this piece of research relates to Asian women, it is valuable to note that women of all ethnicities are at risk of becoming victims of domestic violence (Yoshioka, 2001).Domestic violence advocates have investigated abusers patterns so that victims and advocates can better comprehend abusers pathological behaviors. The cycle of violence is a portrayal of the cyclical behaviors of abusers. It is described as three main phases. The first phase describes how the abuser becomes increasingly angry, which may include antagonizing the victim, calling her names and demeaning her.Avery large part of abuse is in the form of verbal and emotional attack. The abuser may tell the victim that she deserves the abuse and even state that she likes the abuse. He may tell her that no one else would want her. In the second phase, the abuser hurts his victim by inflicting physical and/or sexual acts toward her. Soon after violent episodes, the abuser will apologize for hurting his partner and may make promises he does not intend to keep, such as never hurting her again or promising to seek help. The abuser may also attempt to smooth over the situation by lavishing his partner with gifts. Unfortunately, the abuse does not stop there and instead, he will continue to repeat the cycle (Domestic Violence Awareness Project, 2005).Knowing that the abusers behaviours are part of a maladaptive cycle is useful in informing victims of this cycle. In this way, they do not begin to internalize the abuse and do not learn to believe that the abusers verbal, physical and sexual abuse is granted. Instead, understanding the abusers dysfunctional method of relating allows victims to attribute the abuse to the abuser instead of their own shortcomings. With this knowledge, victims are able to heal from the abuse and regain a feeling of sel f-worth (Yoshiaka, 2001).It is widely believed that Asian women of many regions are highly susceptible to lives of subjugation and servitude to their partners. This belief is attributed to a variety of cultural factors. It is hypothesized that women remain in abusive relationships due to the stigma that is placed on them if they leave their partner. In order to preserve family dignity, respect and honour, women many times do not speak out against abusive situations. In fact, due to the powerful traditional practices enforced within Asian communities, extended family members who do have knowledge of the abuse encourage women to tolerate the abuse.In a study by How (1990), she sought to examine the impact of domestic violence within the Asian population, specifically within Southeast Asians including Laotians, Khmer, Vietnamese, and Chinese. The researcher found that the impact of traditional Asian values such as close family ties, harmony and order do not necessarily send the message that abuse is unacceptable. Instead, women are expected to play a submissive role that includes values of fatalism, perseverance and self-restraint. Victims feel that if these qualities are maintained, they are showing respect to their families and bringing them great honour. Ultimately, victims feel they are honourable women who are fulfilling their spousal duties (How, 1990).Within the Asian-Indian population, the definition of relationship is nearly synonymous with marriage due to the cultures belief in arranged marriage. Arranged marriage is the practice in which parents select their childrens future husband or wife. Potential mates are then allowed to provide their input about his or her potential husband or wife. A lasting marriage is a symbolism of honour and respect, which in turn reflects upon the entire family. This is especially important for other siblings within the family, whose chances of being arranged depend greatly on their female siblings compliance to their husb ands. Additionally, for couples who have female children, women may endure the abuse in order to protect their daughters name, or reputation.Otherwise, if the family secret is exposed or the woman leaves the relationship, a victims daughter may never have a chance of getting married because her family name is now tainted. Some Indian brides suffer dowry related abuse. A dowry is a material exchange given to the grooms family by the brides family in exchange for the grooms family inviting the bride into their family. Sometimes, the grooms family will demand more dowry money or other assets such as livestock, cars or jewelry. If the demands are not fulfilled, the bride may be severely mistreated physically, verbally and sexually by her new groom and in-laws (BBC Network, 2006).The article Domestic Violence and Asian Immigrant Women by M. Yoshioka(2001), explores the Asian communitys attitudes toward domestic violence. The researcher also desires to understand psychosocial factors rega rding domestic violence within this population. Specifically, the study was developed to look at three areas that involved abuser approval of abuse situation-specific approval of violence endorsement of male privilege and perceived alternatives to abuse.The setting of the study takes place in New York, which compels the researcher to pose questions regarding Asian families views and struggles with domestic violence in the context of an immigrant country. Yoshiaka also implemented an assessment tool that was specifically created to gather information about attitudes regarding abuse titled, the Revised Attitudes toward Wife Abuse Scale (RAWA),which was developed by Yoshiaka and Dania (1999). In order to develop this assessment tool, 650 surveys of Chinese, Cambodian, Korean, Vietnamese, and South Asian adults were gathered.Immigrant families contend with many obstacles. Abusive environments further complicate the hurdles that exist for women who are taken out of their familiar homelan d elements. Based on these dynamics, victims of abuse in this type of environment are further isolated due to possible separation from family of origin, language barrier, and lack of knowledge about the host countrys view of abuse and provision of supportive services.Researchers found that it is a complex interweaving of cultural, environmental, and interpersonal factors that contribute to the possibility for domestic violence within the immigrant population. They identify values such as privacy, honour, self-restraint, harmony, and order (Hosted, 1984 Hu Chen, 1999 Kerkrade, Tang, Westwood, 1991 McLaughlin Braun, 1998) as factors that may minimize the severity of domestic violence within the culture (Ho,1990).Additionally, immigrants support system is usually left behind in their homeland, which strips them of supportive family and friends who could otherwise support and advice victims. Further, they may not be knowledgeable of the support services available in their host country . Another factor that contributes to isolation is a possible language barrier (Das Dasgupota Warrier, 1996). Lack of command of the host countrys language could be absolutely devastating and fearful for a victim who is already isolated from a support system and familiar environment.Results from the study showed that gender, ethnicity and witness to parental abuse were factors contributing to greater acceptance of wife abuse. Males were more likely to endorse abuse, particularly Cambodian men when compared with Chinese men. Additionally, children who witnessed their mothers being abused were more likely to view abuse as acceptable. Researchers made a final and significant point, stating that although Asian immigrants are categorized within one category, there are apparent differences in Asians views of spousal abuse.MethodologyIn describing domestic violence toward Asian women and its effects, it was first necessary to describe what a victim is like. Unfortunately, the general publi c assumes that a battered woman is most likely quite vulnerable in that she is uneducated, passive and weak. Some even believe that a victim enjoys the abuse. Many people wonder why an abused woman does not simply leave her relationship. The reality is that anyone could be a victim, regardless of age, race, disability status, financial status, and education. This is why it was important to describe the profile of a victim at the beginning to emphasize that there is no typical profile. Anyone could become victim to abuse by simply trusting that her partner will care for her with respect.Victims could also be boys and men, however, for the purpose of this research, this population was not addressed to any capacity. Additionally, cultural norms of other ethnicities were not explored duet the focus of this research being solely on Asian women. However, some of the studies included in this research included comparative data between Asian women and women of other nationalities.The cycle of violence was also explained. It is a critical factor in understanding abusers behaviours for the purpose of providing services to abusers and especially to provide victims with an understanding of what they are experiencing and why. Many sufferers of domestic violence are told what is deficient in them. Over time, they begin to believe these untruths.In investigating the intricacies of domestic violence and how it affects the Asian population specifically, it was important to provide examples of various cultures norms regarding the views and treatment of women. Although all Asian countries cultural norms and sub-cultural idiosyncrasies were not described within the context of this research, some cultures customs were explored. Although it is important to obtain an exhaustive understanding about various Asian cultures it is vital to acknowledge that several idiosyncrasies exist within each country, every city and even every subculture. Thus, it was important to explore research th at explained this factor of culture.Further, its difficult to generalize that one particular culture or sub-culture has a set template of norms, therefore, descriptions of cultural norms were described with care and consideration. It should be noted that when speaking of any given culture, it is not to be assumed that the description exclusively applies to each and every person within particular culture. Therefore, application of cultural norms should be understood with the idea that no one culture is completely homogenous. All in all, it is important to have a balanced understanding of cultural norms that do not over-generalize a culture and yet do take into consideration that there is a majority view about most issues.General data on domestic violence was quite accessible. Many forms of information exist that assists in understanding the nature of abuse and its effects. There is also a wealth of information about the type of support available to victims of abuse and perpetrators. The Internet Isa plentiful source for finding local agencies and support groups relating to domestic violence. Information was also discovered through various modes of literature books, journal articles and magazines. Visual media can also be accessed via Internet, videotape, DVD and television programming that advocates for victims rights and disseminates other information for advocates, victims and perpetrators.Due to the directed nature of this piece, it was necessary to not only search for general information about domestic violence, but instead, there was a need for materials about domestic violence within the Asian population. With this need came the task of finding out as much as possible about the many categories of Asians that exist and to also find the most amount of information about each category and sub-category.This was found to be a gruelling task, because contrary to belief, there are several classifications within the category known as Asian. Compounding this point was the lack of abundant information regarding domestic violence in various Asian cultural contexts. Additionally, little information was found about supportive services within many Asian communities, most probably due to the cultural views regarding keeping personal information within the family and also duet the accepting views toward abuse.Fortunately, much of the information found did include the many facets of violence within the Asian population, such as provision of statistical data of how many women of various cultures reported spousal abuse perpetrators views about abuse perpetuation of these views duet cultural beliefs about abuse long-term effects on abused women and children availability of treatment treatment modalities and laws that now protect women against violence.DiscussionThe devastating effects of domestic violence have been brought into the forefront of popular culture only within the past twenty years ago. Since then, and probably long before on a smaller scal e, advocates have been working vigorously to service domestic violence victims and expose the horrific nature of its effects.This has included conducting research with women, children and perpetrators attempting various forms of therapeutic modalities to address the after-effects provision of abuser services and exposure of domestic violence through written and visual media. Through these efforts, victim advocates have provided support to thousands of women who otherwise would either continue to live a life of isolating despair or alternatively, lose their lives to domestic violence.Unfortunately, the amount of information and support services that are available vary widely based on victims geographical location, largely due to the level of tolerance toward domestic violence. Naturally, the more a society believes an act is a crime, the more intensive the work toward ending it. However, other factors exist that inhibit further research toward ending violence against Asian women. Man y Asian countries are horribly impoverished and do not have the means to either conduct necessary research nor provide protection and services to women and their children. Victim advocates contend with many hurdles under these types of conditions.Funding is not available to do the necessary work involved. In supporting women who are or have suffered domestic violence, the need for many levels of support is needed. Women who are currently in an abusive relationship are most likely stripped of many basic needs and resources. For instance, abused women may not have access to finances, a car or other transportation, food supply, proper clothing and medical care. In order for domestic violence advocates to provide for these needs, they must have the proper financial backing. With financial resources, food pantries could be created, medical care could be made available, shelters could be built and transportation could be provided to important locations such as homes of supportive family, friends, and religious institutions.For women who decide to leave abusive relationships, services such as transitional living could be made available. Providing a safe living environment would be paramount for Asian women, particularly due to the lack of support received by family members, immediate family included. If a woman were to leave her husband to seek out the support of immediate family, the victim would be turned away in most cases and encouraged to return to the abusers home. This suggestion is based on the familys unwillingness to dishonour the family name by having daughter who left her husband. Further, they do not want to offend the grooms family by displaying their disapproval toward the abuse. Women who decide to leave their partner also require additional support services such as referrals for educational and vocational services. If they have children, they may need childcare services so that the women can seek employment to support themselves and their children.Ed ucation related to cultural views about abuse is also necessary. Its important to debunk societal norms that accept abuse. For an Asian woman, leaving her spouse is directly contradictory to everything she learned about achievement of life goals since she was a child. From childhood, many Asian parents clearly define their daughters role in society as children, as adolescents, and ultimately, as adults. The ultimate goal is to marry into a distinguished, successful family that is willing to accept a deserving woman into their lives. Being trained in this way for essentially all of their lives, it is often complicated task for an abused woman to understand why she is worthy of making her own choices and living her life in the way she chooses, which includes being free of any level of abuse.As stated earlier in the Method section, it was mentioned that there was not ample research in the area of domestic violence in the Asian community. This is not to say that there is not enough to s upport those who would like to know more about domestic violence. However, there seems to be a great need for extensive research and investigation into the many cultures within the Asian population and the effects of domestic violence in these communities. By further understanding the nature of abuse in this context, service providers are able to more effectively provide the type of services needed by Asian women.ConclusionDomestic violence research in the Asian population is still in its infancy. Considering that fact that domestic violence has not been intended to for so long provides a time frame that suggests that although there is not an abundance of work toward attending to Asian victims, there have been some concrete efforts in its progression.Delving into the intricacies of domestic violence within this population is no easy task, and will not be going forward. There are many hindrances to gaining swift and accurate information about Asian womens suffering, although it is ur gently needed. One of the biggest hurdles that have been discussed within this research is Asians cultural views regarding secrecy of family troubles. A woman is not only betraying her husband if she discloses abuse, but she is also shaming both her in-laws and her family of origin by disturbing the family structure and name. Although some parents would provide their support in a situation such as this, most would not. Therefore, the victim knows she has nowhere to go.Not only is family name at stake. Compounding this pressure is the fact that women are not highly regarded within most Asian cultures. Therefore, no one considers her desires and needs. Instead, she must does she is commanded, which usually involves fulfilling caretaking responsibilities for other members of the family. A woman in Asian society is considered similarly as a child. She does not have many skills that would be useful other than household responsibilities, she must be watched, and she is not knowledgeable a bout many subjects. Based on this outlook, how is it possible to fathom that she may need to be attended to properly? For any social change to occur towards the treatment of Asian women, it is a necessity that views of women themselves also change.In speaking of women who suffer from spousal abuse, it is vital to discuss the effects of abuse of others in the home that are also experiencing the abuse. Children are particularly susceptible to inaccurate methods of dealing with life circumstances due to inexperience. Therefore, those who are also experiencing abuse or even witnessing it learn that violence is the answer to lifes obstacles. Further, children of abused women do not have high regard for their mothers due to their observation that she is being mistreated by their father. Thus, they too learn to become abusive toward their mothers, and in turn continue to repeat the cycle of abuse. In essence, they inherit this devastating method of dealing with life throughout childhood an d on into adulthood. Children who were once victims and/or witnesses of domestic abuse now become the perpetrators, simply due tithe lack of knowledge that alternatives exist.Intervention is absolutely necessary to protect abused women. However, for long-term gain, intervention is also essential. Without an outlook toward the future, there will be no end to violence, but instead only bandaging of pain and suffering that has already occurred. There is no guarantee that prevention work will decrease the prevalence of domestic violence in Asian families, particularly due to strong views opposing the idea of regarding women equally. However, there is great possibility that given time, views will change and progress will be made.It is a difficult yet courageous and commendable feat to attempt to eradicate abuse from the lives of Asian women. However, as seen within this research, the reality currently remains that leaving relationship may not appear to be the most appealing option for wo men who have received life-long training to dedicate their lives to servitude to their spouses. Additionally, they also know that there are few positive alternatives to leaving their spouse. They may be destitute with no support from their families of origin. They have no source of financial or emotional support.They may risk ever seeing their children again. And most regrettably, they are endangering their lives by attempting to leave. Thousands of cases are reported in the United States and United Kingdom stating that women have lost their lives to spousal abuse. In these countries, most people agree that thesis a horrible tragedy and work toward changing the occurrence of such heinous crimes. Alternatively, Asian communities have very high tolerance and indeed acceptance of domestic violence to the extent that very few people openly show their disgust against it. In fact, it is encouraged and applauded. It is seen as being a well-deserved and appropriate punishment. Women can wel l expect being burned to death on account of their parents inability to pay off the grooms family. Adwoman can be openly beaten without neither family nor strangers attempting to put an end to it. How then can it be stopped?Ending an evil such as this without a sense of social responsibility is extremely difficult. Further, work with abusers is nearly impossible, knowing that this method of relating to partners has been cultivated and accepted in the minds of Asian men. Moreover, because the Asian community believes in resolving familial issues amongst each other, many abusers would not be receptive to counselling. Even in the case that an abuser agreed to seek counselling, other family members may not be supportive of this type of resolution, instead viewing it as disloyalty and abandonment of the family.Due to the abundance of obstacles to ending violence in the Asian community, it becomes clear that abuse toward women within the Asian population will surely be maintained for now. However, it is also hopeful to state that progress will be made, based on the progress that has already been achieved. Although progress is very slow and despite the many fears that they are contending with, it is encouraging to know that women have begun speaking out against abuse.ReferencesBBC Asian Network (2005). Asian women and domestic violence. www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/features/hh/awadv. .Das Dasgupota Warrier. (1996). Domestic Violence in the South Asian Immigrant Community. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless,93. 173-185.Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California-San Francisco, USA.Domestic Violence Awareness Project of the National Resource Centre on Domestic Violence (2005). Domestic Violence Awareness Action for Social Change. Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence.How, C. K. (1990). An analysis of domestic violence in Asian American communities A multicultural approach to counselling. Women Therapy, 9(1-2), 129-150.Hosted , G. (1984). Cultures consequences International differences in work related values, Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications, Inc.Kahlo, L. R. (1983). Social values and social change Adaptation to life in America. New York Pager.Kerkrade, Tang, Westwood. (1991).McLaughlin, L.A. Braun, K.L. (1998). Asian and Pacific Islander Cultural Values Considerations for Health Care Decision Making, 23.Health and Social Work.Millender, A. Rethinking Domestic Violence The Social Work and Probation Response London Rutledge. 1996.Rodriguez, M Quahog, S and Bauer, H.M. (1996). Breaking the silence Battered womens perspectives on medical care, 5, 3.Yoshioka, M.R. Domestic Violence and Asian Immigrant Women. http//www.columbia.edu/cu/csswp/research/desriptions/Yosh.htm. .Yoshioka, M.R., Shibusawa, T. (2004). Psychosocial Measures for Asian Pacific Americans. In A. Roberts K Yeager (Eds.),Evidence-based practice manual (pp. 488-495). New York, NY Oxford University Press.Yoshioka, M.R., Dania, J., Ulla , K. (2001). Attitudes toward marital violence An examination of four Asian communities. Violence against women, 7(8), 900-926.Jaden, P., Tonnes, N. (2000). Extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence Research Report. Washington, Declinational Institute of Justice and the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention.

Análisis de la Producción Legislativa 1990-2008

Anlisis de la Produccin Legislativa 1990-2008I. ResumenEl presente trabajo titulado Anlisis de la Produccin Legislativa 1990-2008, tiene el propsito de analizar el desempeo institucional del Congreso, como Poder del Estado, especficamente a su funcin legislativa, en el perodo comprendido entre el 1 de enero de 1990 al 31 de diciembre del 2008.Esta investigacin nace de la inquietud de la relacin entre el Poder Ejecutivo y el Poder Legislativo a raz de la modificacin a nuestra Constitucin en el ao de 1994. Luego de una crisis de legitimidad de unos comicios electorales, se modifica la fecha de las elecciones mirror symmetry elegir al Presidente de la reppblica nos en shirktramos gyp un Poder Legislativo, donde la mitad del perodo iniciara ascertain un ejecutivo y la otra mitad con otro ejecutivo diferente. Surge la inquietud de evaluar la produccin legislativa y La Efectividad del Poder Legislativo Entre el Poder Poltico y el Poder InstitucionalHablar de la labor del Congreso en tr minos de produccin presenta retos conceptuales significativos pues dicha labor no es trigger-happyucible a una cuanta objetiva y tangible sobre lo que pueda emitir el criterio comn. Existe una dimensin cuantificable en dicha labor el Nmero de leyes y Resoluciones emanados de la Asamblea Legislativa en determinado perodo.Intentar dar igual peso a cada unidad de legislacin representara importantes diferencias cualitativas entre ellas. Peor an, puede crear una ilusin de eficiencia en perodos en que crece la aprobacin de leyes triviales o de ineficiencia en perodos en que se aprueban tan solo unas pocas pero fundamentales.Es posible analizar la legislacin aprobada cualitativamente, clasificando su relevancia segn la opinin de expertos (Mayhew, 1991). No obstante, es imposible hacerlo sin introducir un alto grado de subjetividad en el anlisis. La excelencia objetiva de la legislacin aprobada solo puede valorarse con respecto a la legislacin potencial-la agenda political leadertica en u n momento determinado.El estudio analiza y evala la produccin del Poder Legislativo como rgano de gobierno. Aunque las funciones del Parlamento son muy amplias y variadas (representar, debatir, controlar) su actividad legislativa es la que lo ubica como Poder co-gobernante y le otorga una posicin central en el proceso poltico de toma de decisiones. La razn para analizar la produccin legislativa del Congreso consiste precisamente en que el cumplimiento de genus Sus otras funciones ha sido visto, frecuentemente, como un obstculo para su desempeo como rgano de gobierno. Adicionalmente, su condicin asambleistita y el pluralismo de su integracin, son los factores estructurales que apoyan una visin crtica que ve al Poder Legislativo como una institucin ineficiente que bloquea el proceso de gobierno. En consecuencia, este anlisis y evaluacin de la produccin legislativa del parlamento busca establecer con precisin la cuanta de su contribucin al proceso de gobierno y las caractersticas con que se desarrolla.Nuestro trabajo se centra, especficamente en las leyes y reformas a leyes aprobadas por mayora absoluta y no aborda las otras funciones constitucionales del Congreso. Dentro de este campo, la investigacin presenta los siguientes productos a) Nmero total de leyes promulgadas por el Poder Ejecutivo b) Ordenamiento de ese conjunto en base a un Indice de Importancia Poltica, con una metodologa de ponderacin c) Efectividad del Poder Ejecutivo y del Poder Legislativo en materia de iniciativas legislativas sancionadas en dicho perodo, d) Vetos Institucionales, e) Nmero de Partidos Polticos. Los resultados de la investigacin en cada uno de estos puntos, se exponen en los respectivos captulos del informe, respaldado con cuadros y grficas.El estudio est organizado de la siguiente maneraEl Primer Captulo del informe es fundamentalmente un desarrollo conceptual que presenta una caracterizacin del parlamento como institucin. Inicialmente se establecen, de forma general, el con junto de funciones de los parlamentos en los regmenes democrticos y se muestra como sus caractersticas pueden variar en funcin de ciertos aspectos del diseo institucional. En el segundo apartado se da cuenta de las crticas que han recibido los Congresos tanto desde quienes le exigen eficiencia como desde los que lo acusan de debilidad institucional. Finalmente se desarrolla una caracterizacin del parlamento dominicano, describiendo su ubicacin institucional, composicin, funciones, se describen las normas que regulan el proceso legislativo y algunas puntualizaciones sobre la evolucin del Congreso en las din isinglasss de gobierno.El Segundo Captulo del informe desarrolla una propuesta metodolgica para evaluar la produccin legislativa del parlamento. Como es natural, el trabajo parte de la consideracin de la cantidad de leyes sancionadas por el Poder Legislativo. El nmero total es 1329 leyes en 18 aos es en s mismo significativo. De todas formas parece obvio que las normas aprobadas s on de muy diversa naturaleza, complejidad e impacto. En consecuencia un anlisis en profundidad debe necesariamente realizar una discriminacin entre ellas. Es as, que de forma complementaria se propone la utilizacin de un ndice de importancia de las leyes que las clasifica en cuatro categoras en funcin de la utilizacin de cuatro criterios. Los criterios refieren a i) el origen del proyecto en funcin de resulta de una iniciativa del Poder Ejecutivo o del propio Poder Legislativo ii) su alcance en trminos de impacto en la sociedad iii) la repercusin en la opinin pblica y iv) la existencia o no de debates en los plenarios de las cmaras. El ndice se construye agregando los cuatro valores para cada ley generando cuatro categoras de importancia Muy alta, alta, media y baja.El Tercer Captulo entra de lleno en el anlisis longitudinal de la produccin legislativa en reppblica Dominicana, 1990-2008. En primer trmino se muestra la evolucin del nmero de leyes aprobadas durante los 18 aos incluido s en el estudio. En esta primera aproximacin se constatan dos regularidades. a) Es la aparicin de una tendencia creciente con el tiempo en el nmero total de leyes aprobadas. b) Es la presencia de un ciclo dentro de cada legislatura que muestra una tendencia al aumento en el nmero total de leyes aprobadas hacia el final de cada perodo legislativo.En segundo trmino se observa la legislacin aprobada durante el perodo de anlisis en funcin de los resultados que surgen de la aplicacin del ndice de importancia de las leyes. either se observa que las leyes de baja importancia son la mayora. Asimismo los diferentes tipos de leyes muestran comportamientos cclicos dismiles dentro de cada legislatura. Mientras la aprobacin de leyes de alta importancia se concentra en los primeros aos de cada perodo presidencial. Se sostiene que esta diferencia obedece principalmente a dos factores. A) el Poder Ejecutivo promueve a nivel legislativo buena parte de su agenda de gobierno al inicio de cada adminis tracin. B) en los primeros aos de cada mandato se constituyeron mayoras legislativas que hicieron viables los proyectos propuestos por el gobierno, esa incidencia se manifiesta de forma muy fuerte al inicio de cada administracin y va decayendo con el transcurso de la misma.El cuarto captulo Claramente el alto porcentaje de leyes importantes aprobadas por unanimidad en el perodo 1996-200 obedece a la legislacin vinculada al proceso de desarrollo institucional que vivi el pas. En cuanto a la disciplina legislativa de los partidos polticos, lo primero a destacar es que todos los partidos dominicanos, contrariamente a lo que se cree, muestran niveles de disciplina muy altos. Al considerar las votaciones de las leyes de alta importancia, se observa que en la gran mayora de ellas, todos los partidos votaron en bloque.El ltimo captulo del informe estudia la interposicin de vetos por parte del Poder Ejecutivo a las leyes aprobadas por el Parlamento. Este comportamiento responder de forma ev idente a la existencia y permanencia de una coalicin mayoritaria de gobierno o como reaccin del Poder Ejecutivo, en condicin minoritaria, frente a un Parlamento que tiende a mostrarse proactivo y ajeno a sus prioridades en materia poltica, a medida que se aproximan las siguientes elecciones.En una apreciacin inicial, considerbamos que los congresos eran dbiles desde el punto de picture de la produccin legislativa quienes otorgan la legitimidad democrtica al proceso ordinario de elaboracin de la ley. Es decir, el paso de las leyes por el Congreso, no slo es obligatorio en todo proceso legislativo, sino que es el elemento legitimador de las mismas ante la sociedad. Durante el desarrollo de la investigacin fue evidente que el Legislativo es un rgano sumamente complejo, que requiere de anlisis muy detallados sobre las dinmicas que le dan forma. Debemos reconocer que en Amrica Latina el Poder Legislativo es un actor ms poderoso de lo que generalmente se cree y que precisamente por ello es necesario tenerlo en cuenta, pues en muchas ocasiones termina moldeando y acotando el poder que se atribuye a la Presidencia de la Repblica.La propia investigacin deja abiertas varias interrogantes y muestra la necesidad de profundizar en otras funciones del Congreso, que son igualmente relevantes y que en conjunto muestran la efectiva densidad del desempeo y de la legitimidad de las Cmaras como cuerpos primarios del sistema democrtico control y fiscalizacin del Poder Ejecutivo y de otros organismos estatales. Dentro de este campo, la investigacin pudiese desarrollar los siguientes productos a) desempeo de los partidos polticos, en trminos de incitativa legislativa y en trminos de disciplina b) anlisis del proceso de tramitacin de las leyes consideradas, disciplina de los conjuntos partidarios, etc.Sera interesante poder evaluar la capacidad de propuesta y de respuesta de las representaciones congresionales, las modificaciones que se introducen a los proyectos en debate y los eve ntuales rechazos, los tipos de aprobacin y sus alternativas concretas, observando las formas de disciplina, los intercambios y los procesos de negociacin (inter e intra partidarios y sectoriales, entre los legisladores y los agentes ejecutivos) y estudiar los procesos de trabajo en las comisiones, que constituyen ncleos estratgicos de la labor legislativa y laboratorios privilegiados para el anlisis. Todo lo cual implica una relacin inter-institucional compleja y un proceso dinmico de construccin de mayoras, para la sancin de cada producto legislativo concreto.Sin perjuicio de alguna publicacin, por m desconocida, que sirva de antecedente, el presente trabajo correspondera al primer estudio de este tipo que se realiza en el Repblica Dominicana, lo que es un avance importante para el anlisis de poltica comparada. Confiamos en que el producto inicial de ste informe sea de utilidad para la labor legislativa, los estudios acadmicos. Es nuestro inters abrir el debate de la funcin de lo s poderes legislativos en el entorno presidencialista. Esperamos que de su lectura el lector especializado pueda extraer ngulos de anlisis o sugerencias que debern contribuir al despliegue de su propia reflexin.II. El Congreso Como Institucin2.1.Tiempos de CambiosEl Congreso ocupa un lugar relevante en la estructura de gobierno de Repblica Dominicana, como lo establece la normativa constitucional, pero tambin a causa de las modalidades del rgimen poltico y de la composicin nutrida del arco de partidos, afirmando una cultura cvica con tradiciones democrticas. Es sin duda una institucin estratgica de un sistema que se ha ajustado histricamente a un formato efectivo de separacin, de independencia y de equilibrio entre los poderes del estado, que resulta a su vez alimentado por la dinmica poltica, las representaciones de la ciudadana y la intervencin consistente de los partidos.Varias circunstancias han ayudado a ste perfil. En primer trmino, existe una tendencia histrica universal de larga data que afecta a todos los sistemas democrticos y que redunda en el reforzamiento del papel del Poder Ejecutivo y de las dems unidades de la administracin en los procesos decisorios. Ms que rganos de ejecucin tenemos as un verdadero poder gubernamental -segn la acertada caracterizacin de Maurice Duverger 1(1962)- que se desarrolla como ncleo de produccin poltica, en un sistema cambiante de relaciones institucionales, con nuevos vnculos de separacin y articulacin, cooperacin y competencia entre los cuerpos mayores de gobierno, que modifican a su vez las caractersticas del proceso legislativo y los congresos de ejercicio de las dems funciones del Congreso.En trminos ms generales, las transformaciones corrientes inciden en la configuracin de los factores de poder y de las alternativas de control, en el mbito de la economa y en el conjunto de la sociedad. Se modifican las formas, las funciones y hasta el alcances de la poltica, el oficio de los partidos y los patrones de legitim acin, en un contexto de creciente complejidad y al tiempo que van cambiando las estructuras del estado y los modos de gobierno, los sistemas de gestin pblica y los requerimientos tcnicosDe este conjunto de factores y de las transformaciones concurrentes en la normativa constitucional, surge otro cuadro de condiciones para el ejercicio del Poder Legislativo. Nuevos componentes y problemas en la fabricacin de la poltica y de la legislacin, un atado de relaciones institucionales de balance dificultoso y relativamente asimtrico. Habr exigencias renovadas en la gestin parlamentaria, particularmente en lo que toca a los procesos de trabajo y a la organizacin, a los flujos de informacin y a la disposicin de saberes, a la capacidad colectiva de sus cuerpos y al desempeo particular de los representantes y las bancadas, a las relaciones con la ciudadana y la opinin pblica.Estos elementos trazan un escenario de transicin en el que el Congreso es un actor con responsabilidades primarias en los procesos de cambio y debe tramitar a la vez su propia reconversin poltica e institucional. Siendo de hecho, sujeto y objeto de la reforma poltica y del estado. Un centro que compite por participar con efectividad en los procesos de decisin y un organismo mutante, que ha de ajustarse a las innovaciones en curso, mejorar sus capacidades y la calidad de su produccin, corrigiendo sus dficits de modernizacin y afrontando constantemente nuevos desafos.2.2. El Congreso Funciones y DesafosA travs de distintas pocas histricas, desde la antigua Grecia, las ciudades-estados, hasta nuestros das, y con modalidades por cierto muy diversas, la existencia de una asamblea deliberante y representativa, que albergue las expresiones del pluralismo y sea una instancia de participacin, constituye una pieza fundamental en la configuracin de un Rgimen Poltico Legtimo.En los sistemas democrticos modernos, los Congresos son precisamente asambleas de naturaleza colectiva, composicin plural y carcter permanent e (Cotta, 1988), cuya centralidad deriva de las competencias que en esa condicin tiene asignadas, como poder del estado y rgano de gobierno representacin poltica y debate, cuerpo de control e instancia de decisin, titular primario de la funcin legislativa y responsable de otras funciones pblicas (constituyentes, jurisdiccionales, de administracin, actos habilitantes o de autorizacin).La fortaleza y la debilidad de los partidos y del sistema de partidos, su consistencia y su grado de institucionalizacin, influyen obviamente en el peso poltico y la capacidad de accin del Congreso. Por otra parte, el balance entre el Poder Legislativo y el Poder Ejecutivo, el ascendiente del Jefe de Gobierno, las formas de articular su liderazgo y de ejercer la conduccin poltica, as como sus potestades para determinar la agenda parlamentaria, que dependen de las recursos institucionales de que ste dispone por derecho, pueden igualmente variar en funcin de los poderes de fuente partidaria y asimismo, co n la formacin de coaliciones polticas.La forma de las coaliciones y en particular, los vnculos de cooperacin y de competencia entre los partidos asociados, as como las relaciones con otros partidos y con las escuadras de oposicin, dibujan el margen de discrecionalidad poltica del Presidente, modelan los trmites concretos de formacin de mayoras y determinan (o sobre-determinan) las modalidades de construccin de la agenda congresional y los procesos legislativos. Segn ello, las Cmaras y los sectores partidarios representados los que estn en la oposicin y los que revistan en la coalicin que apoya al gobierno- pueden tener frente a ste, alternativas diversas de autonoma y de disciplina, con diferentes posibilidades de iniciativa y de respuesta.No obstante, en casi todas las democracias modernas, las grandes decisiones pasan necesariamente por el Parlamento, mediante actos de habilitacin o autorizacin y afirmando las prcticas del gobierno por legislacin (Sartori, 1994).El Parlamento se ubica en una posicin estratgica, como poder del estado y rgano de gobierno, en articulacin con los otros poderes y con la red compleja de entidades que componen la estructura pblica. Por su naturaleza y su calidad intrnseca es depositario mayor de la soberana y tiene a su cargo el cumplimiento de cometidos que resultan esenciales para el desenvolvimiento del rgimen democrtico, en trminos de legitimidad y de equilibrio institucional, de garantas ciudadanas y de calidad de los procesos de decisin poltica.2.3. Las Crticas al Congreso.Los eventos de la poca han afectado la imagen pblica del Parlamento y lo enfrentan a crticas y autocrticas, que apuntan doblemente a su lgica de funcionamiento y a su debilidad institucional, con razonamientos que hacen pie en la realidad parlamentaria y tienen causa cierta, pero no dejan de ser a la vez paradjicos y con puntos discutibles. game las crticas recordadas cabe reafirmar que el cumplimiento estricto y adecuado de las responsabilidades Constituc ionales del Parlamento es un componente fundamental de la calidad de la democracia y de la legitimidad del Sistema Poltico. Esta premisa vale para el conjunto de las competencias del Parlamento, tanto para la funcin legislativa, como para las funciones de representacin y de control, en su calidad de instancia deliberativa y de rgano de gobierno.En lo que toca especficamente al Proceso de Produccin Legislativa hay que tener en cuenta el equilibrio complejo y de hecho la tensin, entre los distintos factores y valores que intervienen las necesidades del gobierno y los requerimientos de la participacin parlamentaria, la calidad de la ley junto con la celeridad y la eficiencia en su tramitacin, los intereses de la jefatura ejecutiva y las alternativas de respuesta que surgen en el recinto legislativo, el propsito de construccin de mayoras, las disidencias en los bloques oficialistas y el derecho de oposicin.La relacin existente entre los Poderes Legislativo y Ejecutivo, debe ser analizad a como una relacin de equilibrio, de coordinacin y de competencia. Este dispositivo regular, se presenta de manera caracterstica en el tipo de gobierno presidencial, que ha sido definido como un sistema de instituciones separadas que comparten el poder (Neustadt, 1960). Tenemos as un esquema de separacin, con dos instituciones legitimadas por una eleccin directa, que por naturaleza y por diseo, comparten el poder y compiten por l en rigor, son orgnicamente alentadas a competir (Charles Jones, 1994), a fin de hacer valer su propia representacin y para concretar su participacin en los procesos de gobierno (Sartori, 1994 y Mark Jones, 1995).En trminos generales, en estos principios debera basarse el anlisis adecuado de las funciones del Parlamento, as como los debates tcnicos y polticos sobre su performance, tanto en una perspectiva histrica, como en lo que toca a las alternativas del tiempo actual. Y es con tales fundamentos en una reivindicacin explcita de los postulados indicados que entendemos necesario encarar este estudio sobre la Produccin Legislativa, dentro de las coordenadas especficas del sistema dominicano.2.4. El Proceso Legislativo DominicanoLas caractersticas del proceso legislativo en Repblica Dominicana son conocidas y resultan familiares para los agentes polticos y en particular para los parlamentarios. Sin detenernos pues en los detalles de su descripcin, creemos no obstante conveniente repasar algunos de los rasgos principales que encuadran dicho proceso desde el punto de vista poltico institucional. En este sentido, debemos subrayar que se trata de un proceso regulado minuciosamente por la propia Constitucin de la Repblica en forma ms detallada que en otros rdenes jurdicos.Historia El Poder Legislativo dominicano tiene su origen en el informe de la comisin encargada de redactar la Constitucin de 1844 que deba ser sometido para su discusin al Soberano Congreso Constituyente. La primera Constitucin Dominicana del 6 de Noviembre de 1844 consa gr un Congreso Nacional compuesto por 2 Cmaras El Tribunado y el Consejo Conservador. El trabajo de esos cuerpos legislativos en ese primer ao fue intenso y lleno de dificultades, pues en el pas todo estaba por reglamentarse. Entre las disposiciones tomadas, pueden citarse la Ley de Instruccin Pblica, la Ley de Patentes de Navegacin, la Ley del Rgimen de Aduanas, la Ley de Administracin Provincial, la Ley de Subdivisin Poltica de las Provincias, la Ley de Atribuciones y Responsabilidades de los Secretarios de Estado, la Ley que adapt los Cdigos Franceses y la Reforma a los Bienes Nacionales entre otras.Funcin El Artculo 16 de la Constitucin Dominicana le asigna una definicin especfica de Congreso de la Repblica, institucin poltica colegiada, de carcter pluralista y electivo, que funciona normalmente dentro del contexto de las democracias liberales, cuyas atribuciones principales son hacer las leyes, examinar todos los actos del Poder Ejecutivo y ejercer control sobre el gobierno y l a administracin en general. El Congreso ejerce el poder constituyente derivado.Esta conformacin de las asambleas parlamentarias supone el establecimiento de un cuerpo estable y especializado, que inviste la representacin de la ciudadana y de los partidos en un mbito de pluralidad, comoo Cuerpo Deliberante Realizan deliberaciones e intercambio de posiciones y luego son discutidos pblicamente por una asamblea constituida en autoridad pblica.o Cuerpo Representativo Permiten canalizar demandas emergentes (en trminos de agregacin y regulacin, de compromiso y de autoridad, articulando los intereses particulares con las producciones de inters general).o Es un rgano Poltico Colegiado Compuesto por un grupo de personas elegidas democrticamente mediante sufragio popular para representar a los ciudadanos.o Es una Asamblea de Carcter Permanente El Congreso origina decisiones continuamente, asegurando la gobernabilidad.o Expresin de Pluralismo Poltico Es la nica institucin que consiente la prese ncia conjunta y continua de todos los sujetos polticos y no excluye ningn sector social llevndole en fin a recoger opinin, formarla y participar en las opciones de gobierno, fundamentalmente mediante la construccin del orden jurdico y del imperio de la ley, dentro de un estatuto constitucional que ofrece garantas de divisin de poderes, de control y de equilibrio poltico.De acuerdo con el mandato Constitucional y las normas reglamentarias de la institucin, las funciones Congresionales son tres Legislar, Fiscalizar y Representar.o La actividad de Legislar o de hacer leyes es considerada la funcin bsica de un Congreso, ya que los Senadores y Diputados tienen la indelegable misin de transformar en textos claros, precisos y coherentes todo aquello que se pretende instituir como norma para regir conductas o relaciones individuales o colectivas.o El mandato y el mecanismo de Fiscalizacin se refiere a la inspeccin, fiscalizacin, revisin e interpelacin sobre la actividad que realizan el Pode r Ejecutivo y sus dependencias es decir, Secretaras de Estado y Direcciones Generales, as como sobre cualquier otro funcionario electo. Esta trabajo de control ejerce una funcin de contrapeso frente a las actuaciones del gobierno central,o El concepto de Representacin es moderno. En poltica, implica actuar en inters de los representados, de una manera sensible ante ellos. El compromiso de representacin es doble, ya que los legisladores representan a la nacin y a la provincia o circunscripcin que los ha elegido.Congreso Bicameral A travs de la separacin de poderes -que sigue siendo un principio vigente en las constituciones polticas modernas y en la nuestra- el Parlamento es a su manera un rgano de gobierno (co-gobernante), mediante un desempeo adecuado de sus dos cmaras, donde ambas Cmaras participan en pie de igualdad. La produccin legislativa por lo que podemos decir que es un proceso fuertemente reglamentado y complejo, que presenta alternativas complicadas y diversas, desde el p unto de vista del desempeo institucional y la negociacin poltica, como pieza estratgica de las acciones de gobierno.La constitucin bicameral del Poder Legislativo ha sido histricamente concebida como un mecanismo que limita las posibilidades de dominio simple de una mayora parlamentaria (una eventual tirana, segn los constitucionalistas clsicos, temerosos de la concentracin de la autoridad pblica) y es en s misma una garanta suplementaria de la separacin de poderes, actuando como un factor ms de equilibrio, al interior del organismo legislativo, en el conjunto de las instituciones pblicas y en relacin a la ciudadana. Es este un ingrediente bsico de la civilizacin democrtica, que permite una mayor amplitud en la representacin poltica, favorece el pluralismo y brinda la oportunidad de un mejor procesamiento (poltico y tcnico) de los productos legislativos, en un mrito que se extiende a otras competencias parlamentarias2.La estructura bicameral conlleva a que los proyectos de ley deban pasar necesariamente por el examen de ambas Cmaras (doble escrutinio) y slo resulten aprobados si se llega a una voluntad coincidente de los dos cuerpos, con sus mayoras respectivas. Si median diferencias, el proyecto es objeto de una segunda revisin.Los sistemas bicamerales hacen que el proceso de la formacin de la ley sea ms responsable y cuidadoso, evitando la aprobacin precipitada de los proyectos y, adems, resulta ms acorde con el rgimen democrtico, por cuanto garantiza mejor una autntica representacin tanto poltica como regional y social.Conformacin y Eleccin Nuestro Poder Legislativo est conformado por un Senado, compuesto por 32 miembros, uno por el Distrito Nacional y un representante de cada Provincia y. una Cmara de Diputados. El Senado est La Cmara de Diputados est compuesto por 178 miembros, a razn de uno por cada cincuenta mil habitantes o fraccin de ms de veinticinco mil. Por cada provincia debe haber por lo menos dos (Constitucin Dominicana, Art. 24). Ambos represen tan al pueblo, a travs de distintos partidos polticos, son elegidos por representacin proporcional desde las listas partidarias y de forma nominal, por votacin directa secreta y universal, en todo el pas, para un perodo de cuatro aos (Constitucin Dominicana, Art 21, Art. 24)Las elecciones nacionales para elegir diputados se harn mediante circunscripciones electorales con el objeto de garantizar que los ciudadanos que resulten electos en las elecciones generales, sean una verdadera representacin del sector de los habitantes que los eligen.3La Constitucin de la Repblica no delega en los partidos polticos la representacin del pueblo, ms bien los contempla como instrumentos para realizar el procedimiento electivo mediante el cual los ciudadanos eligen cada cuatro aos a sus representantes.Quorum En cada Cmara se requiere la presencia de ms de la mitad de sus miembros, como qurum mnimo para la validez de las deliberaciones. Las decisiones se toman por mayora absoluta de votos (Art. 30). L a legislatura ordinaria dura noventa das, pero puede prorrogarse por sesenta das ms (Art. 33).Proceso Legislativo En una investigacin sobre la participacin de los parlamentos en la produccin poltica, Olson y Mezey (1991) afirman que el proceso legislativo est determinado por tres conjuntos de factores a) las influencias externas sobre la legislatura b) la capacidad de actuacin de los legisladores y c) el contenido de las polticas que se procesan.Las influencias externas estn determinadas por el dispositivo constitucional, la estructura estatal, la normativa electoral, el sistema de partidos, los intereses de los grupos de la sociedad y la agenda pblica de gobierno. El alcance de actuacin de los legisladores est determinado por el formato organizacional del Parlamento, las reglas de funcionamiento de las cmaras y de las comisiones, las estructuras de los partidos, as como la operativa especfica de las bancadas y finalmente, las caractersticas personales de los integrantes del cuerpo. El contenido de las polticas depende de la naturaleza de los proyectos que se presentan en el Parlamento y del tipo de actores e intereses a que tales proyectos afectan.Para alcanzar pues un resultado unificado, que manifieste la voluntad formal del Poder Legislativo como rgano mayor del estado, es necesario recorrer un itinerario complejo, de instancias eslabonadas, que respeta la composicin bicameral del Parlamento, as como la calidad representativa de los cuerpos que lo componen y de sus integrantes, respondiendo a los requerimientos tcnicos y polticos de la gramtica legislativa.Este proceso est integrado por cuatro fases a) la proposicin del proyecto de ley, b) el trmite del proyecto, c) la aprobacin de la ley, y d) la promulgacin de la ley.En sentido general, Todo proyecto de ley puede iniciarse en cualquiera de las dos Cmaras y pasan usualmente a las comisiones parlamentarias respectivas, sean stas especiales o permanentes, actuando ms de una vez en forma integrada. Las comis iones son organismos fundamentales del sistema parlamentario y obran con un potencial de buena poltica legislativa, agregando a esta tarea, una mayor densidad, garantas y posibilidades de calidad4. Cuando el trabajo en la comisin ha concluido, el proyecto es presentado en el plenario de la Cmara correspondiente para su discusin y aprobacin.Luego de admitido en una de las Cmaras debe ser sometido a dos discusiones distintas, con un intervalo de un da por lo menos entre una y otra discusin (Art. 39), de acuerdo al procedimiento para la aprobacin de leyes. S, en el caso de que el proyecto fuese declarado de emergencia debe ser discutido en dos sesiones consecutivas (Art. 39). Cada Cmara es independientemente en sus funciones de acuerdo al criterio mayoritario de sus miembros. Cualquier proyecto de ley recibido en una Cmara, despus de haber sido aprobado en la otra, ser fijado en el orden del da pero el mismo puede ser aprobado, modificado o rechazado por esta (Art. 40).Sancin El proced imiento de sancin legislativa se inicia con el debate en Sala, a partir de la intervencin de los voceros de las comisiones actuantes. Luego, los legisladores discuten el proyecto en general y luego en particular, artculo por artculo, mediante un procedimiento ordenado por el Reglamento de Funcionamiento de cada Cmara. Todo proyecto de ley aprobado por la Cmara de origen pasar a la otra Cmara para su consideracin, desarrollndose un procedimiento de ida y

Compare and Contrast Positivism and Interpretivism

Comp atomic number 18 and Contrast Positivism and InterpretivismPositivism is a theoretical and methodological approach in contemporary criminology. Positivists believe that human behavior is wrought by biological, psychological or social factors and forces. These factors and forces are called individual pathology which deter the decision-making and control ability of an individual and results in behavioral problems (White Haines, 2003). To extend to legal definition, execration is defined as individual pathology to obey law and to conform to moral consensus of the society. Positivism approach in criminology examines the trait distinctions between offenders, rather than on the culpable acts as the focus of analysis. Also, positivity determines how these diversitys predispose a person towards criminality (White Haines, 2003). Positivists believed that these traits observed stomach be diagnosed and treated by dealing with and removing the factors and forces that author the of fend behavior to occur.In a confident(p) view of the world, cognition was seen as the flair to get at truth, to understand the world well abundant so that we might herald and control it. The world and the universe were deterministic they operated by laws of ca exercise and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. apprehension was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair. We use deductive abstract thought to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the results of our studies, we whitethorn collect that our system doesnt fit the facts well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict verity. The plus believed in empiricism the idea that observation and measure was the midpoint of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern inborn laws through direct manipulation and observation.Paradigm of social research playact paradigm by following the ide a of Thomas Kuhn who is the first turn overer of paradigm that was showed in the book named structure of scientific revolutionsin 1962. In social attainment has two important paradigm that used for research society and event which happen in social that are advantageousness and interpretivismCritical Positivism Post-PositivismLets resume our very brief discussion of ism of perception with a simple distinction between epistemology and methodology. The term epistemology comes from the Greek word epistm, their term for knowledge. In simple terms, epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know. methodology is likewise concerned with how we come to know, but is much more practical in nature. methodological analysis is focused on the specific ways the methods that we can use to try to understand our world better. Epistemology and methodology are intimately related the former involves the philosophy of how we come to know the world and the latter involves t he practice.When most population in our society suppose close acquirement, they think about some guy in a white lab coat employmenting at a lab bench mixing up chemicals. They think of experience as boring, cut-and-dry, and they think of the scientist as narrow-minded and esoteric (the ultimate nerd think of the humorous but nonetheless mad scientist in the Back to the Future movies, for instance). A dope of our stereotypes about science come from a period where science was dominated by a particular philosophy positivism that tended to support some of these views. Here, I want to suggest (no matter what the movie industry may think) that science has moved on in its thinking into an era of post-positivism where m each of those stereotypes of the scientist no extended hold up.Lets begin by considering what positivism is. In its broadest sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics (I leave it you to look up that term if youre not familiar with it). It is a bureau that holds that the polish of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to what we can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible. When I think of positivism (and the related philosophy of logical positivism) I think of the behaviorists in mid-20th Century psychology. These were the mythical rat runners who believed that psychology could only study what could be directly observed and measured. Since we cant directly observe emotions, thoughts, and so forth (although we may be able to measure some of the physical and physiological accompaniments), these were not real topics for a scientific psychology. B.F. Skinner pleadd that psychology needed to focalise only on the positive and negative reinforcers of behavior in order to predict how spate will behave everything else in between (like what the person is thinking) is inapplicable because it cant be measured.In a po sitivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The world and the universe were deterministic they operated by laws of cause and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. Science was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair. We use deductive agenting to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the results of our studies, we may learn that our theory doesnt fit the facts well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict reality. The positivist believed in empiricism the idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation.OK, I am exaggerating the positivist position (although you may be amazed at how close to this some of them actually came) in order to make a point. Things have changed in our views of science since the middle part of the 20th century. Probably the most important has been our shift away from positivism into what we term post-positivism. By post-positivism, I dont mean a nice adjustment to or revision of the positivist position post-positivism is a wholesale rejection of the central tenets of positivism. A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the way we think in our everyday behavior are not distinctly different. scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning are basically the same process. There is no difference in kind between the two, only a difference in degree. Scientists, for example, follow specific procedures to assure that observations are verifiable, accurate and consistent. In everyday reasoning, we dont always proceed so carefully (although, if you think about it, when the stakes are high, even in everyday life we become much more cautious about measu rement. Think of the way most answerable parents keep continuous watch over their infants, noticing details that non-parents would neer detect).One of the most common forms of post-positivism is a philosophy called critical realism. A critical realist believes that there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. (This is in contrast with a subjectivist who would hold that there is no external reality were to each one making this all up). Positivists were also realists. The difference is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. In other(a) words, the critical realist is critical of our ability to know reality with certainty. Where the positivist believed that the goal of science was to uncover the truth, the post-positivist critical realist believes that the goal of science is to hold steadfastly to the goal of getting it right about reality, even though we can never come through that goal Because all measurement is fallible, the post-positivist emphasizes the importance of triplex measures and observations, each of which may possess different types of error, and the need to use triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try to get a better bead on whats happening in reality. The post-positivist also believes that all observations are theory-laden and that scientists (and everyone else, for that matter) are inherently biased by their cultural experiences, world views, and so on. This is not cause to give up in despair, however. upright because I have my world view based on my experiences and you have yours doesnt mean that we cant try for to translate from each others experiences or understand each other. That is, post-positivism rejects the relativist idea of the incommensurability of different perspectives, the idea that we can never understand each other because we come from different experiences and cultures. Mo st post-positivists are drawivists who believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it. Because perception and observation is fallible, our constructions must be imperfect. So what is meant by objectiveness in a post-positivist world? Positivists believed that objectivity was a characteristic that resided in the individual scientist. Scientists are responsible for putting aside their biases and beliefs and seeing the world as it really is. Post-positivists reject the idea that any individual can see the world perfectly as it really is. We are all biased and all of our observations are affected (theory-laden). Our best hope for achieving objectivity is to triangulate across multiple fallible perspectives Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon. It is what multiple individuals are trying to achieve when they criticize each others work. We never achieve objectivity perfectly, but we can app roach it. The best way for us to improve the objectivity of what we do is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each others work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a objet dart like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have survival value and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and discernment reality.Clearly, all of this stuff is not for the faint-of-heart. Ive seen many a graduate student get lost in the maze of philosophical assumptions that contemporary philosophers of science argue about. And dont think that I believe this is not important stuff. But, in the end, I tend to turn pragmatist on these matters. Philosophers have been deba ting these issues for thousands of years and there is every reason to believe that they will continue to debate them for thousands of years more. Those of us who are practicing scientists should check in on this debate from time to time (perhaps every blow years or so would be about right). We should think about the assumptions we make about the world when we conduct research. But in the meantime, we cant carry for the philosophers to settle the matter. After all, we do have our own work to doPositivism Post-PositivismLets start our very brief discussion of philosophy of science with a simple distinction between epistemology and methodology. The term epistemology comes from the Greek word epistm, their term for knowledge. In simple terms, epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know. Methodology is also concerned with how we come to know, but is much more practical in nature. Methodology is focused on the specific ways the methods that we can use to try to understand our world better. Epistemology and methodology are intimately related the former involves the philosophy of how we come to know the world and the latter involves the practice.When most people in our society think about science, they think about some guy in a white lab coat working at a lab bench mixing up chemicals. They think of science as boring, cut-and-dry, and they think of the scientist as narrow-minded and esoteric (the ultimate nerd think of the humorous but nonetheless mad scientist in the Back to the Future movies, for instance). A lot of our stereotypes about science come from a period where science was dominated by a particular philosophy positivism that tended to support some of these views. Here, I want to suggest (no matter what the movie industry may think) that science has moved on in its thinking into an era of post-positivism where many of those stereotypes of the scientist no longer hold up.Lets begin by considering what positivism is. In its br oadest sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics (I leave it you to look up that term if youre not familiar with it). It is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to what we can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible. When I think of positivism (and the related philosophy of logical positivism) I think of the behaviorists in mid-20th Century psychology. These were the mythical rat runners who believed that psychology could only study what could be directly observed and measured. Since we cant directly observe emotions, thoughts, etc. (although we may be able to measure some of the physical and physiological accompaniments), these were not legitimate topics for a scientific psychology. B.F. Skinner argued that psychology needed to concentrate only on the positive and negative reinforcers of behavior in order to predi ct how people will behave everything else in between (like what the person is thinking) is irrelevant because it cant be measured.In a positivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The world and the universe were deterministic they operated by laws of cause and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. Science was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair. We use deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test. Based on the results of our studies, we may learn that our theory doesnt fit the facts well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict reality. The positivist believed in empiricism the idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observati on.OK, I am exaggerating the positivist position (although you may be amazed at how close to this some of them actually came) in order to make a point. Things have changed in our views of science since the middle part of the 20th century. Probably the most important has been our shift away from positivism into what we term post-positivism. By post-positivism, I dont mean a slight adjustment to or revision of the positivist position post-positivism is a wholesale rejection of the central tenets of positivism. A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the way we think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning are essentially the same process. There is no difference in kind between the two, only a difference in degree. Scientists, for example, follow specific procedures to assure that observations are verifiable, accurate and consistent. In everyday reasoning, we dont always proceed so carefully (although, if you think about it, when the stakes are high, even in everyday life we become much more cautious about measurement. Think of the way most responsible parents keep continuous watch over their infants, noticing details that non-parents would never detect).One of the most common forms of post-positivism is a philosophy called critical realism. A critical realist believes that there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. (This is in contrast with a subjectivist who would hold that there is no external reality were each making this all up). Positivists were also realists. The difference is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. In other words, the critical realist is critical of our ability to know reality with certainty. Where the positivist believed that the goal of science was to uncover the truth, the post-positivist critical re alist believes that the goal of science is to hold steadfastly to the goal of getting it right about reality, even though we can never achieve that goal Because all measurement is fallible, the post-positivist emphasizes the importance of multiple measures and observations, each of which may possess different types of error, and the need to use triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try to get a better bead on whats happening in reality. The post-positivist also believes that all observations are theory-laden and that scientists (and everyone else, for that matter) are inherently biased by their cultural experiences, world views, and so on. This is not cause to give up in despair, however. Just because I have my world view based on my experiences and you have yours doesnt mean that we cant hope to translate from each others experiences or understand each other. That is, post-positivism rejects the relativist idea of the incommensurability of

ministers black veil :: essays research papers

The Ministers Black VeilMr. Hooper is the minister of the town of Milford. One Sunday, Mr. Hooper decides to come to church service wearing a mordant greater omentum. He delivers his sermon while wearing the downcast veil even though his parishioners shy away from him and the veil adds an ominous touch to the service. After church he goes to mingle with the congregation outside, while continuing to wear the veil, and people act like they dont know him, dont passing beside him, and forget to invite him out to lunches that are a traditional part of Sundays there. That afternoon Mr. Hooper oversees a funeral. He stock- tranquilize hasnt taken off the veil, though it is a bit more appropriate in this setting to be wearing it. Then that evening he conducts a wedding with the veil still on, making it the gloomiest wedding of that time. The village people think he is losing his mind and want to talk to him and find out why his wearing the veil, but behindt seem to get the courage to do it. His wife also leaves him because he refuses to take off the veil. Mr. Hooper doesnt take off the veil as long as his lives, and even on his death bed refuses to take it off his earthly formMr. Hooper teaches a very good lesson with this veil. Everybody has a black veil that they hide something behind. It is not until that things are put in the open for everybody to see that they start shunning you. If you keep your secrets hidden inside you, people still associate with you because they dont try to look past what is on the surface, in case they might find something that they dont like or is out of the ordinary. I dont like that people are superficial enough to let something as small as a veil get in the way of how they feel about the minister, because the veil doesnt change who the minister is as a person.

social science :: essays research papers

I knew then that I wanted to devote my studies to learning how body mechanisms react to varying chemicals. Witnessing innovative pharmaceutical seek had only intensified my passion for biochemistry, a subject I had become fascinated with in high school it had intrigued me because it integrated my love of chemistry with my believe to learn more about biological processes. My A-level studies provided me with a solid introduction to biochemistry I now seek a greater academic focus and more extensive research opportunities by pursuing a university degree. Throughout high school, my extracurricular activities sharpened skills I will need in my biochemistry course-even if the activities often intricate dance and music rather than science. Each week, I spent the majority of my spare meter participating in List school-related music and dance activities. I also participated in my local parishs band and was elected Band Leader by the other members. Serving in this leadership position has allowed me to shape a community music program and taught me just how much I have learned about time-management and commitment. My busy schedule has required me to carefully divide my time among my academics, extracurricular interests, family and friends throughout it all, I have prioritised my academics while remaining firmly committed to my outside pursuits. During my biochemistry studies, this balancing act will prove extremely reusable as I seriously dedicate myself to my academics while also maintaining time for my hobbies and relationships. Five years ago, I had the opportunity to visit Birmingham, England-and I loved any minute of it. The people, the culture and the location all sparked my interest in one day living in England.